Friday, March 5, 2010

List of Indian inventions and discoveries

List of Indian inventions and discoveries

Inventions

Bangles on display in India.
  • Bangle: Bangles—made from shell, copper, bronze, gold, agate, chalcedony etc.—have been excavated from multiple archaeological sites throughout India.[2] A figurine of a dancing girl—wearing bangles on her left arm— has been excavated from Mohenjo-daro (2600 BCE).[3] Other early examples of bangles in India include copper samples from the excavations at Mahurjhari—soon followed by the decorated bangles belonging to the Mauryan empire (322–185 BCE) and the gold bangle samples from the historic site of Taxila (6th century BCE).[2] Decorated shell bangles have also been excavated from multiple Mauryan sites.[2] Other features included copper rivets and gold-leaf inlay in some cases.[2]
  • Button: Buttons—made from seashell—were used in the Indus Valley Civilization for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.[8] Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pieced into them so that they could attached to clothing by using a thread.[8] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."[9]
  • Calico: Calico had originated in India by the 11th century and found mention in Indian literature by the 12th when writer Hemacandra mentioned calico fabric prints done in a lotus design.[10] The Indian textile merchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics from Gujarat appeared in Egypt.[10] Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onwards.[10] Within India, calico originated in Calicut.[10]
  • Carding, devices for: Historian of science Joseph Needham ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India.[11] The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).[11] These carding devices, called kaman and dhunaki would loosen the texture of the fiber by the means of a vibrating string.[11]
Map showing origin and diffusion of chess from India to Asia, Africa, and Europe, and the changes in the native names of the game in corresponding places and time.
  • Chintz: The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India.[24] The origin of the word chintz itself is from the Hindi language word चित्र् (chitr) , which means a spot.[24][25]
  • Cockfighting: Cockfighting was a pastime in the Indus Valley Civilization by 2000 BC.[27] The Encyclopedia Britannica (2008)—on the origins of cockfighting—holds: "The game fowl is probably the nearest to the Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), from which all domestic chickens are believed to be descended...The sport was popular in ancient times in India, China, Persia, and other Eastern countries and was introduced into Greece in the time of Themistocles (c. 524–460 BCE). The sport spread throughout Asia Minor and Sicily. For a long time the Romans affected to despise this "Greek diversion," but they ended up adopting it so enthusiastically that the agricultural writer Columella (1st century AD) complained that its devotees often spent their whole patrimony in betting at the side of the pit."[28]
  • Cotton Gin: The Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century CE.[30] This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.[30] The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as charkhi, more technically the "wooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.[11]
  • Crucible steel: Perhaps as early as 300 BCE—although certainly by 200 CE—high quality steel was being produced in southern India also by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique.[33] In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.[33] The first crucible steel was the wootz steel that originated in India before the beginning of the common era.[34] Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era.[35][36]
A scattering of diamonds shows off the many reflecting facets.
  • Diamond Gemstones: Early diamonds used as gemstones originated in India.[40] Golconda served as an important center for diamonds in central India.[40] Diamonds then were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe.[40] Early references to diamonds in India come from Sanskrit texts.[41] India remained the only major source of diamonds in the world until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil.[42] The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions diamond trade in India.[42] Buddhist works dating from the 4th century BC mention it as a well-known and precious stone but don't mention the details of diamond cutting.[43] Another Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.[43] A Chinese work from the 3rd century BC mentions: "Foreigners wear it [diamond] in the belief that it can ward off evil influences".[43] The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially did not use diamond as a jewel but used as a "jade cutting knife".[43]
  • Dice: The dice is attributed to India by some accounts.[44][45][46] Some of the earliest archaeological evidence of oblong dice have been found in Harrapan sites such as Kalibangan, Lothal, Ropar, Alamgirpur, Desalpur and surrounding territories, some dating back to the third millennium BCE, which were used for gambling.[47][48][49] The oblong or cubical dice (akṣa) is the precursor of the more primitive vibhīṣaka—small, hard nuts drawn randomly to obtain factors of a certain integer.[50] Dicing is believed to have later spread westwards to Persia, influencing Persian board games.[51] Early references to dicing can be found in the Ṛg Veda (c. early 2nd millennium BCE)[49][52][53] as well as the newer Atharva Veda (c. late 2nd millennium ~ early 1st millennium BCE).[47][54]
  • Dike: Dikes were known to be widely used in the Indus valley civilization,[55][56] which are believed to be the first dikes in the world,[56] built as early as the 1st millennium BCE.[56] This was the same period when the dockyard at Lothal was in operation.[56] The use of dikes became known from then onwards.[56]
  • Dock (maritime): The world's first dock at Lothal (2400 BCE) was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt.[57] Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed great knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering.[57] This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.[57] It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks.[58] This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary.[58] The engineers built a trapezoidal structure, with north-south arms of average 21.8 metres (71.5 ft), and east-west arms of 37 metres (121 ft).[58]
Cotton being dyed manually in contemporary India.
  • Dyeing: Early evidence of dyeing comes from India where a piece of cotton dyed with a vegetable dye has been recovered from the archaeological site at Mohenjo-daro (3rd millennium BCE).[59] The dye used in this case was madder, which, along with other dyes—such as Indigo—was introduced to other regions through trade.[59] Contact with Alexander the Great, who had successfully used dyeing for military camouflage, may have further helped aid the spread of dyeing from India.[59] Within India these dyes have found consistent mention in Indian literature and in some cases have been excavated in archaeological findings.[59] Dyes in India were a commodity of both Internal trade and exports.[59] Indian exports of Indigo alone reached nearly 15, 097, 622 pounds in 1887-88 with the principle markets being the United Kingdom, the United States of America, France and Egypt.[59]
  • Hookah: The invention of the modern Hookah is attributed to Hakim Abul Fateh Gilani (c. 1580 CE), who was a physician in the court of Mughal emperor Akbar (1542 - 1605 CE).[61][62][63] Following the European introduction of tobacco to India, Gilani raised concerns after smoking tobacco became popular among Indian noblemen, and subsequently envisaged a system which allowed smoke to be passed through water in order to be 'purified'.[62] Gilani invented the Hookah after Asad Beg, then ambassador of Bijapur, encouraged Akbar to take up smoking.[62] Following popularity among noblemen, this new device for smoking soon became a status symbol for the Indian affluent.[62]
  • Hospital: Brahmanic hospitals were established in what is now Sri Lanka as early as 431 BCE.[64] The Indian emperor Ashoka (ruled from 273 BCE to 232 BCE) himself established a chain of hospitals throughout the Mauryan empire (322–185 BCE) by 230 BCE.[64] One of the edicts of Ashoka (272—231 BCE) reads: "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Asoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted."[65]
  • Incense clock: Although popularly associated with China the incense clock is believed to have originated in India, at least in its fundamental form if not function.[66][67] Early incense clocks found in China between the 6th and 8th century CE—the period it appeared in China all seem to have Devanāgarī carvings on them instead of Chinese seal characters.[66][67] Incense itself was introduced to China from India in the early centuries CE, along with the spread of Buddhism by travelling monks.[68][69][70] Edward Schafer asserts that incense clocks were probably an Indian invention, transmitted to China, which explains the Devanāgarī inscriptions on early incense clocks found in China.[66] Silvio Bedini on the other hand asserts that incense clocks were derived in part from incense seals mentioned in Tantric Buddhist scriptures, which first came to light in China after those scriptures from India were translated into Chinese, but holds that the time-telling function of the seal was incorporated by the Chinese.[67]
  • India ink, carbonaceous pigment for: The source of the carbon pigment used in India ink was India.[71][72] In India, the carbon black from which India ink is produced is obtained by burning bones, tar, pitch, and other substances.[72][73] Ink itself has been used in India since at least the 4th century BC.[74] Masi, an early ink in India was an admixture of several chemical components.[74] Indian documents written in Kharosthi with ink have been unearthed in Xinjiang.[75] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in ancient South India.[76] Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink.[77]
  • Indian clubs: The Indian club—which appeared in Europe during the 18th century—was used long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.[78] During the British Raj the British officers in India performed calisthenic exercises with clubs to keep in for physical conditioning.[78] From Britain the use of club swinging spread to the rest of the world.[78]
Laser Interferometer for measuring refractive index invented by M.V.R.K. Murty.
  • Interferometer, lateral shear: Invented by M.V.R.K. Murty, a Lateral Shear Interferometer utilizes a laser source for measuring refractive index.[79] The principle of the Murty Interferometer is: 'when a parallel plate of glass receives a collimated laser beam at an oblique angle, the reflections from front and back of the plate are always separated by a certain amount of shear depending on thickness and refractive index of the glass plate and angle of incidence of the beam. An interference fringe of uniform intensity is obtained in the common area of two laterally sheared beams. When a wedged plate of a few arc seconds instead of parallel plates is used as a shearing plate such as its apex of wedge lies in the horizontal plane, a set of straight fringes parallel to the horizontal direction are formed for the well collimated laser beam. The interferometer is insensitive to vibrations and therefore the fringes are stable even without isolation table.'[80] The schematic diagram for measuring refractive index of liquids or solids by using the Murty Interferometer is given in this figure.[80] The laser interferometer did not require any optical path compensation.[79]
  • Kabaddi: The game of kabaddi originated in India during prehistory.[85] Suggestions on how it evolved into the modern form range from wrestling exercises, military drills, and collective self defense but most authorities agree that the game existed in some form or the other in India during the period between 1500-400 BCE.[85]
  • Ludo: Pachisi originated in India by the 6th century.[86] The earliest evidence of this game in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta.[86] This game was played by the Mughal emperors of India; a notable example being that of Akbar, who played living Pachisi using girls from his harem.[86][87]. A variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way to England during the British Raj.[86]
The Great Stupa at Sanchi (4th-1st century BCE). The dome shaped stupa was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.
  • Pajamas: Pajamas in the original form were invented in India, which was for outdoor use and was reinterpreted by the British to be sleepware.[94][95] The use of this garment spread throughout the world with increasing globalization.[94][95]
  • Palampore: पालमपुर् (Hindi language) of Indian origin[96] was imported to the western world—notable England and Colonial america—from India.[97][98] In 17th century England these hand painted cotton fabrics influenced native crewel work design.[97] Shipping vessels from India also took palampore to colonial America, where it was used in quilting.[98]
  • Plastic surgery: Plastic surgery was being carried out in India by 2000 BCE.[99] The system of punishment by deforming a miscreant's body may have led to an increase in demand for this practice.[99] The surgeon Sushruta contributed mainly to the field of Plastic and Cataract surgery.[100] The medical works of both Sushruta and Charak were translated into Arabic language during the Abbasid Caliphate (750 CE).[101] These translated Arabic works made their way into Europe via intermidiateries.[101] In Italy the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi of Bologna became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.[101]
  • Prayer flags: The Buddhist Sutras, written on cloth in India, were transmitted to other regions of the world.[103] These sutras, written on banners, were the origin of prayer flags.[103] Legend ascribes the origin of the prayer flag to the Shakyamuni Buddha, whose prayers were written on battle flags used by the devas against their adversaries, the asuras.[104] The legend may have given the Indian bhikku a reason for carrying the 'heavenly' banner as a way of signyfying his commitment to ahimsa.[105] This knowledge was carried into Tibet by 800 CE, and the actual flags were introduced no later than 1040 CE, where they were further modified.[105] The Indian monk Atisha (980-1054 CE) introduced the Indian practice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet.[104]
  • Private bathroom and Toilet: By 2800 BCE, private bathrooms, located on the ground floor, were found in nearly all the houses of the Indus Valley Civilization.[107] The pottery pipes in walls allowed drainage of water and there was, in some case, provision of a crib for sitting.[107] The Indus Valley Civilization had some of the most advanced private lavatories in the world.[107] "Western-style" toilets were made from bricks using toilet seats made of wood on top.[107] The waste was then transmitted to drainage systems.[107]
Wayang Kulit (shadow puppet) in Wayang Purwa type, depicting five Pandava, from left to right: Bhima, Arjuna, Yudhishtira, Nakula, and Sahadeva (Museum Indonesia, Jakarta). Ghosh, Massey, and Banerjee (2006) trace the origins of puppetry in India to the Indus Civilization.
  • Puppets and Puppetry: Evidence of puppetry comes from the excavations at the Indus Valley.[108] Archaeologists have unearthed terracotta dolls with detachable heads capable of manipulation by a string dating to 2500 BCE.[108] Other excavations include terracotta animals which could be manipulated up and down a stick—-archiving minimum animation in both cases.[108] The epic Mahabharata; Tamil literature from the Sangam Era, and various literary works dating from the late centuries BCE to the early centuries of the Common Era—including Ashokan edicts—describe puppets.[109] Works like the Natya Shastra and the Kamasutra elaborate on puppetry in some detail.[110] The Javanese Wayang theater was influenced by Indian traditions.[111] Europeans developed puppetry as a result of extensive contact with the Eastern World.[112]
  • Ruler: Rulers made from Ivory were in use by the Indus Valley Civilization period prior to 1500 BCE.[115] Excavations at Lothal (2400 BCE) have yielded one such ruler calibrated to about 1/16 of an inch—less than 2 millimeters.[115] Ian Whitelaw (2007) holds that 'The Mohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32 inches (33.5 mm) and these are marked out in decimal subdivisions with amazing accuracy—to within 0.005 of an inch. Ancient bricks found throughout the region have dimensions that correspond to these units.'[116] Shigeo Iwata (2008) further writes 'The minimum division of graduation found in the segment of an ivory-made linear measure excavated in Lothal was 1.79 mm (that corresponds to 1/940 of a fathom), while that of the fragment of a shell-made one from Mohenjo-daro was 6.72 mm (1/250 of a fathom), and that of bronze-made one from Harapa was 9.33 mm (1/180 of a fathom).'[117] The weights and measures of the Indus civilization also reached Persia and Central Asia, where they were further modified.[117]
  • Seamless celestial globe: Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, it was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in between 1589 and 1590 CE, and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire.[118][119] Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern technology.[119] These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting in order to produce these globes.[119]
  • Sewage collection and disposal systems: Large-scale sanitary sewer systems were in place in the Indus Valley by 2700 BCE.[107] The drains were 7–10 feet wide and 2 feet (0.61 m) below ground level.[107] The sewage was then led into cesspools, built at the intersection of two drains, which had stairs leading to them for periodic cleaning.[107] Plumbing using earthenware plumbing pipes with broad flanges for easy joining with asphalt to stop leaks was in place by 2700 BCE.[107]
  • Shampoo: Shampoo originally meant head massage in several North Indian languages. Both the word and the concept were introduced to Britain from colonial India,[107] by the Bengali entrepreneur Sake Dean Mahomed.[120]
  • Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley Civilization's archaeological site at Mohenjodaro.[122] The three features of Indian stepwells are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.[122] The early centuries immediately before the common era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture.[122] Both the wells and the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism.[122] Rock-cut step wells in India date from 200-400 CE.[123] Subsequently the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) were constructed.[123]
  • Stupa: The origin of the stupa can be traced to 3rd century BCE India.[124] It was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.[124] The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it evolved into the pagoda, a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.[124]
  • Swimming pool: The "great bath" at the site of Mohenjo-daro was most likely dug during the 3rd millennium BC. This pool is 12 by 7 meters, is lined with bricks and was covered with a tar-based sealant.[125]
  • Toe stirrup: The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India in as early as 500 BCE[126] or perhaps by 200 BCE according to other sources.[127][128] This ancient stirrup consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather.[128] Such a configuration made it suitable for the warm climate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot.[128] A pair of megalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated in Junapani in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh have been regarded as stirrups although they could as well be something else.[129] Buddhist carvings in the temples of Sanchi, Mathura and the Bhaja caves dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with feet slipped under girths.[130][131][132] Sir John Marshall described the Sanchi relief as "the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of the world".[132] In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where winters are sometimes long and cold, were recorded to have their booted feet attached to hooked stirrups.[127] However the form, the conception of the primitive Indian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving into the stirrup of today.[128][131]
Computer-aided reconstruction of Harappan coastal settlement at Sokhta Koh near Pasni on the westernmost outreaches of the civilization
  • Urban planning: Remains of major Indus cities (mature period c. 2600–1900 BCE) display distinct characteristics of urban planning such as streets crossing each other at right angles, well arranged rows of structures as well as neatly built, covered drainage and sewage lines, complete with maintenance sumps, running along backlanes.[136][137] Drains in the ancient maritime city of Lothal for example, designed to be able to take out the city’s entire domestic sewage and storm-water were mostly underground, and built to high levels of uniformity, whereby the slopes never exceed 1 in 10,000.[137][138] In terms of segregation, Lothal was divided into three districts: the citadel, the lower town and the dockyard, which were further divided into smaller administration centres, all having well planned infrastructure such as wide, straight roads along neatly arranged buildings to suit their purpose.[137][139] Such planning is also evident from remains of Mohenjo-Daro, a city to the north-west of Lothal, which appears to have been built adhering to a complex level of city grid planning.[136][140] This leads archaeologists to the conclusion that these cities were conceived entirely if not to a large extent before they were built—the earliest known manifestation of urban planning.[136][141][142]
  • Wootz steel: Wootz originated in India before the beginning of the common era.[34] Wootz steel was widely exported and traded throughout ancient Europe, China, the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East, where it became known as Damascus steel. Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era.[35][36]

Discoveries

Agriculture

Jute plants Corchorus olitorius and Corchorus capsularis cultivated first in India.
  • Cashmere wool: The fiber is also known as pashm or pashmina for its use in the handmade shawls of Kashmir, India.[143] The woolen shawls made from wool in Kashmir region of India find written mention between 3rd century BC and the 11th century AD.[144] However, the founder of the cashmere wool industry is traditionally held to be the 15th century ruler of Kashmir, Zayn-ul-Abidin, who employed weavers from Central Asia.[144]
  • Indigo dye: Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India, which was also the earliest major center for its production and processing.[148] The Indigofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.[148] Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the Greeks and the Romans via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.[148]
  • Jute: Jute has been cultivated in India since ancient times.[149] Raw jute was exported to the western world, where it was used to make ropes and cordage.[149] The Indian jute industry, in turn, was modernized during the British Raj in India.[149] The region of Bengal was the major center for Jute cultivation, and remained so before the modernization of India's jute industry in 1855, when Kolkata became a center for jute processing in India.[149]
  • Sugar: Sugarcane was originally from tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia.[150] Different species likely originated in different locations with S. barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea.[150] Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas[151], and the earliest reference of candied sugar comes from India.[152] The process was soon transmitted to China with traveling Buddhist monks.[152] Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.[153] Each mission returned with results on refining sugar.[153]

Mathematics

The Hindu-Arabic numeral system. The inscriptions on the edicts of Ashoka (1st millennium BCE) display this number system being used by the Imperial Mauryas.
Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya (476 – 550) was translated into Arabic (ca. 820 AD).[154]
Brahmagupta's theorem (598–668) states that AF = FD.
Explanation of the sine rule in Yuktibhasa.
  • 0: The concept of zero as a number, and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India.[155] In India, practical calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number by the 9th century CE, even in case of division.[155][156]
  • Chakravala method: The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations is commonly attributed to Bhāskara II, (c. 1114–1185 CE)[175][176][177] although some attribute it to Jayadeva (c. 950 ~ 1000 CE).[178] Jayadeva pointed out that Brahmagupta’s approach to solving equations of this type would yield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he then described a general method of solving such equations.[179] Jayadeva's method was later refined by Bhāskara II in his Bijaganita treatise to be known as the Chakravala method, chakra (derived from cakraṃ चक्रं) meaning 'wheel' in Sanskrit, relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm.[179][180] With reference to the Chakravala method, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at the time of Bhāskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity.[175][179][181]
  • Decimal Number System: The modern decimal number system originated in India.[182][183][184][185] Other cultures discovered a few features of this number system but the system, in its entirely, was compiled in India, where it attained coherence and completion.[182] By the 9th century CE, this complete number system had existed in India but several of its ideas were transmitted to China and the Islamic world well before that time.[156][185]
  • Large numbers: The religious texts of the Vedic Period provide evidence for the use of large numbers.[191] By the time of the last Veda, the Yajurvedasaṃhitā (1200-900 BCE), numbers as high as 1012 were being included in the texts.[191] For example, the mantra (sacrificial formula) at the end of the annahoma ("food-oblation rite") performed during the aśvamedha ("horse sacrifice"), and uttered just before-, during-, and just after sunrise, invokes powers of ten from a hundred to a trillion.[191]
  • Negative numbers: The use of negative numbers was known in ancient India and their role in mathematical problems of debt and directions between points on a straight line was understood.[195][196] Consistent and correct rules for working with these numbers were formulated.[156] The diffusion of this concept led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.[195]
  • Pythagorean theorem, statement of: Baudhayana (c. 8th century BCE) composed the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, the best-known Sulba Sutra, which contains examples of simple Pythagorean triples, such as: (3,4,5), (5,12,13), (8,15,17), (7,24,25), and (12,35,37)[201] as well as a statement of the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square: "The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original square."[201] It also contains the general statement of the Pythagorean theorem (for the sides of a rectangle): "The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle makes an area which the vertical and horizontal sides make together."[201]
  • Sign convention, operational use of: Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in an early form in India by the 6th century when the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata recommended the use of letters to represent unknown quantities.[160] By the 7th century Brahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns, even for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.[160] Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.[160] By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times, except for the bar separating the numerator and the denominator.[160] A dot symbol for negative numbers was also employed.[160] The Bakhshali Manuscript displays a cross, much like the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolized subtraction when written just after the number affected.[160] The '=' sign for equality did not exist.[160] Indian mathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and the scribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.[204]

Medicine

Cataract in the Human Eye—magnified view seen on examination with a slit lamp. Indian surgeon Susruta performed cataract surgery by the 6th century BCE.
Amastigotes in a chorionic villus. Upendranath Brahmachari (December 19, 1873 - February 6, 1946) discovered Urea Stibamine, a treatment which helped nearly eradicate Visceral leishmaniasis.
  • Angina pectoris: The concept of Hritshoola—literally heart pain—was known to Sushruta (6th century BCE).[100] Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007) hold that: 'It embodies all the essential components of present day definition, i.e. site, nature, aggravating and relieving factors and referral."[100] Sushruta also linked this kind of pain to obesity (medoroga).[100]
  • Cataract surgery: Cataract surgery was known to the Indian physician Sushruta (6th century BCE).[210] In India, cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision.[210] The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.[210] Though this method was successful, Susruta cautioned that cataract surgery should only be performed when absolutely necessary.[210] Greek philosophers and scientists traveled to India where these surgeries were performed by physicians.[210] The removal of cataract by surgery was also introduced into China from India.[211]
  • Circulatory system: The knowledge of circulation of vital fluids through the body was known to Sushruta (6th century BCE).[100] He also seems to possess knowledge of the arteries, described as 'channels' by Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007).[100]
  • Hypertension: Sushruta (6th century BCE) explained hypertension in a manner which matches the modern symptoms of the disease.[100]
  • Inoculation and Variolation: The earliest record of inoculation and variolation for smallpox is found in 8th century India, when Madhav wrote the Nidāna, a 79-chapter book which lists diseases along with their causes, symptoms, and complications.[212] He included a special chapter on smallpox (masūrikā) and described the method of inoculation to protect against smallpox.[212]
  • Leprosy: Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in the Indian medical treatise Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[213] However, The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the Atharva-veda (1500–1200 BCE), written before the Sushruta Samhita.[214]
  • Obesity: Obesity was known to Sushruta (6th century BCE), who also related it with diabetes and heart disorder.[100] He recommended physical work in order to help cure it and its side effects.[100]
  • Stones: The earliest operation for curing stone is also given in the Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[215] The operation involved exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder.[215]
  • Veterinary medicine: The Egyptian Papyrus of Kahun (1900 BCE) and literature of the Vedic period in India offer the first written records of veterinary medicine.[216] One of the edicts of Ashoka (272 - 231 BCE) reads: "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Asoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted."[65]

Mining

  • Diamond: Diamonds were first recognized and mined in central India,[43][219][220] where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found along the rivers Penner, Krishna and Godavari. It is unclear when diamonds were first mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago.[221] India remained the world's only source of diamonds until the 18th century.[222][223]
  • Zinc: Zinc was first recognised as a metal in India.[224][225] Zinc mines of Zawar, near Udaipur, Rajasthan, were active during 400 BCE.[226] There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in the Charaka Samhita (300 BCE).[226] The Rasaratna Samuccaya which dates back to the Tantric period (c. 5th - 13th century CE) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.[226][227]

Science

Bengali Chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy synthesized NH4NO2 in its pure form.
A Ramachandran plot generated from the protein PCNA, a human DNA clamp protein that is composed of both beta sheets and alpha helices (PDB ID 1AXC). Points that lie on the axes indicate N- and C-terminal residues for each subunit. The green regions show possible angle formations that include Glycine, while the blue areas are for formations that don't include Glycine.
  • Atomism: The earliest references to the concept of atoms date back to India in the 6th century BCE.[228][229] The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools developed elaborate theories of how atoms combined into more complex objects (first in pairs, then trios of pairs).[230][231] The references to atoms in the West emerged a century later from Leucippus whose student, Democritus, systematized his views. In approximately 450 BCE, Democritus coined the term átomos (Greek: ἄτομος), which means "uncuttable" or "the smallest indivisible particle of matter", i.e., something that cannot be divided. Although the Indian and Greek concepts of the atom were based purely on philosophy, modern science has retained the name coined by Democritus.[232]
  • Cosmic ray showers, theoretical explanation of: In 1936, physicist Homi Jehangir Bhabha collaborated with Walter Heitler to formulate a theory on cosmic ray showers.[239] They conjectured that the showers were formed by the cascade production of gamma rays and positive and negative electron pairs.[239] In this process, high energy electrons passing through matter would turn into high energy photons by means of the bremsstrahlung process.[239] The photons then produced a positive and negative electron pair, which then led to additional production of photons.[239] This process continued until the energy of the particles went below a critical value.[239]
  • Mahalanobis distance: Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (June 29, 1893–June 28, 1972), this distance measure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used to identify and analyze differing pattern with respect to one base.[244]
  • Panini-Backus Form: Pāṇini's grammar rules have have significant similarities to the Backus–Naur Form or BNF grammars used to describe modern programming languages, hence the notation is sometimes referred to as the Panini–Backus Form.[248][249][250]
  • Raman effect: The Encyclopedia Britannica (2008) reports: "change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules. The phenomenon is named for Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, who discovered it in 1928. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect."[251]

[edit] Innovations

Housed at the Musée Guimet, Paris: 17th century Ivory relief from Tamil Nadu, India. Ivory has been used in India since the Indus Valley Civilization.
  • Ivory: The use of ivory in India dates to the Indus Valley Civilization (2300-1750 BCE).[260] Archaeological excavations have yielded combs, buttons, and other material made from Ivory.[260] The use of ivory for making figurines in India continued into the 6th century BCE.[260] Banglapedia (2008) holds that: "Stone inscriptions found at the ruins of Sanchi Stupa speak of trading in ivory crafts at Bidisha in the 1st century BC. During the Sung rule (1st century BCE) ivory craftsmen were engaged to work on the gates of the stupas at Bharhut, Buddhgaya and Sanchi. Ivory artefacts dating from the Sung period meant for cosmetic use have also been found at Chandraketu Garh in West Bengal. Ivory crafts were also popular during the Kushan period, as suggested by the abundance of ivory artefacts found at Taxila and Begram.".
  • Public bathing: According to John Keay the Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro was the size of 'a modest municipal swimming pool', complete with stairs leading down to the water at each one of its ends.[261] The bath is housed inside a larger—more elaborate—building and was used for public bathing.[261]
  • Radio: In 1894, the Bengali physicist, Jagdish Chandra Bose, demonstrated publicly the use of radio waves in Calcutta, but he was not interested in patenting his work.[262] He also ignited gunpowder and rang a bell at a distance using electromagnetic waves, showing independently that communication signals can be sent without using wires. In 1896, the Daily Chronicle of England reported on his UHF experiments: "The inventor (J.C. Bose) has transmitted signals to a distance of nearly a mile and herein lies the first and obvious and exceedingly valuable application of this new theoretical marvel." The 1895 public demonstration by Bose in Calcutta was before Marconi's wireless signalling experiment on Salisbury Plain in England in May 1897.[263][264]
  • Same language subtitling: Same Language Subtitling (SLS) refers to the idea of subtitling in the same language as the audio, converse to the original idea of subtitling, which was to present a different language. This idea was struck upon by Brij Kothari, who believed that SLS makes reading practice an incidental, automatic, and subconscious part of popular TV entertainment, at a low per-person cost to shore up literacy rates in India. His idea was well received by the Government of India who now uses SLS on several national channels.[265][266] For his idea, Kothari was adjudged a winner at the Development Marketplace— the World Bank’s Innovation Award which gave him enough funds to implement this programme nationally. The innovation has been recognised by the Institute for Social Inventions, UK and the Tech Museum of Innovations, San Jose, USA.
  • Simputer: The Simputer (acronym for "simple, inexpensive and multilingual people's computer") is a self-contained, open hardware handheld computer, designed for use in environments where computing devices such as personal computers are deemed inappropriate. It was developed in 1999 by 7 scientists of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, led by Dr. Swami Manohar in collaboration with Encore India, a company based in Bangalore. Originally envisaged to bring internet to the masses of India, the Simputer and its derivatives are today widely utilized by governments of several Indian states as part of their e-governance drive, the Indian Army, as well as by other public and private organizations.
  • Wilson-Bappu effect: In a paper published in 1957, American astronomer Olin Chaddock Wilson and Manali Kallat Vainu Bappu had described what would later be known as the Wilson-Bappu effect.[271] The effect as described by L.V. Kuhi is: 'The width of the Ca II emission in normal, nonvariable, G, K, and M stars is correlated with the visual absolute magnitude in the sense that the brighter the star the wider the emission.'. The paper opened up the field of stellar chromospheres for research.
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